Classroom management strategies in Greek public kindergartens: Α pilot study

Dafni Petkou; Anastasia Galani; Zoi Galani; Alexandra Katsipi; Ioanna Kraniti

doi:10.55976/rppe.320251421191-206

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Research on Preschool and Primary Education, Volume 3 Issue 1, 2025 /

Original Research

Classroom management strategies in Greek public kindergartens: Α pilot study

Dafni Petkou ¹ ^* , Anastasia Galani ² , Zoi Galani ³ , Alexandra Katsipi ⁴ , Ioanna Kraniti ⁵

1. Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, 57400, Greece
2. Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, 57400, Greece
3. Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, 57400, Greece
4. Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, 57400, Greece
5. Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, 57400, Greece

Correspondence: dafnipetk@ihu.gr

DOI: https://doi.org/10.55976/rppe.320251421191-206

Received

07 July 2025
Revised

27 August 2025
Accepted

11 September 2025
Published

18 September 2025

Classroom management Preschool education Teaching strategies Public kindergartens Behavioral problems

Abstract

Classroom management is a crucial factor for effective teaching and learning, especially in kindergarten, where children develop fundamental social, emotional, and cognitive skills. This study explores how social and cultural learning theories relate to classroom management and emphasises the role of relationships, communication, and creating a positive learning environment. Despite the importance of classroom management in early childhood education, research in Greek kindergartens remains limited, especially regarding the connection between learning theories and the practical strategies used by teachers and the frequency of their application. A quantitative methodological approach was adopted, using a questionnaire for data collection.  The primary objectives were to identify the classroom management strategies used by Greek kindergarten teachers, to determine the frequency of their use and to assess the teachers' confidence in dealing with current and future behavioral issues, as well as promoting students' socio-emotional skills. Findings indicate frequent use of positive management strategies, such as verbal praise and active guidance, aligning with socio-emotional and socio-cultural theories, and low reliance on inappropriate strategies like physical restraint. This research is expected to provide valuable data to inform kindergarten teachers, guide the design of targeted training programs, and support policymakers in enhancing the quality of Greek preschool education.

<h5>Introduction</h5>
Classroom management is a major challenge for teachers. Goοd classroοm management plays an important role in creating a cοnductive learning atmοsphere and increasing student mοtivation (Αbidin, 2024). Although the terms ''classroom management'' and ''discipline'' are sometimes used interchangeably, they are not conceptually identical. The term ''discipline'' usually refers to the structures and regulations that define expected student behavior, as well as teachers' efforts to ensure that students adhere to these rules. In contrast, the literature defines ''classroom management'' is used more broadly in the literature to encompass the actions taken by teachers actions to monitor classroom activities, including students' behavior, their interactions with each other, and the learning process (Burden, 2000). In this sense, classroom management practices are the behaviors that teachers engage in as they carry out their daily classroom management practices. These practices reflect the teacher's personal style in terms of discipline, communication, and teaching, and are integrated into their preferences and efforts to achieve the desired educational goals.
Classroom management is a critical factor in the successful functioning of any educational environment and is fundamental to effective teaching and learning (Sieberer-Nagler, 2015).  Especially in kindergarten, where children develop basic social, emotional, and cognitive skills, the ability of the kindergarten teacher to create a supportive, safe, and organized environment is crucial. The modern kindergarten classroom is characterised by increased heterogeneity, with children coming from different socio-cultural backgrounds and having diverse needs. In this context, the need for effective classroom management strategies becomes imperative. This involves not οnly addressing challenging behaviοrs, but above all prevention, promoting positive interactions, strengthening self-regulation, and creating a positive climate that favors the holistic development of all children (Aydin & Karabay, 2020). Understanding the strategies used by Greek preschool teachers is essential for supporting them and improving the quality of preschool education.
<h5>Literature review</h5>
Importance of classroom management and teacher self-efficacy
In educational settings, conflicts within classrooms are common due to different interpersonal relationships (Harun-or-Rashid, 2022). International research highlights the importance of classroom management skills for preschool teachers. These skills are related to their emotional intelligence and self-efficacy (Agbaria, 2020), factors that influence their ability to manage classroom behavior and promote children's development. Preschool teachers' self-efficacy, i.e., belief in their abilities, seems to play an important role in the strategies they choose (Bay, 2020, Poulou et al., 2019), particularly in early childhood education, where socio-emotional skills and the creation of a safe environment are critical for children's individual and academic growth (Karakose et al., 2022).
Teachers are faced with various behavioral challenges and adopt a variety of disciplinary strategies and approaches (Aksoy, 2020). Their experiences and perceptions of what constitutes effective management shape their practices (Egeberg et al., 2021).  Specifically, classroom management practices influence children's persistence in performing activities (Ogbeche et al., 2022). The quality of interaction between teachers and students is deeply connected to teachers' self-efficacy and their active participation in all student activities (free and structured) (Cadima et al., 2022a).
Preventive approaches and social-emotional learning
Various programs and models have been developed and evaluated, such as the ''Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management'' (Major et al., 2024), from which the questionnaire for this study was derived. Teachers' opinions on these models vary (Şahin-Sak et al., 2018). The need for holistic application of developmentally appropriate practices is evident to ensure meaningful interaction quality between teachers and students (Tilbe & Xiaosong, 2024). Comparative studies, such as the one between the Philippines and Singapore (Rodel, 2024), highlight the differences in practices depending on the cultural context. Similarly, another comparative study between Finland, the Netherlands, Poland, and Portugal (Tilbe & Xiaosong, 2024) underscores the direct link between classroom management and the adequate training and support for different types of activities, as well as the creation of an educational environments with optimal structural conditions.
Finally, it is essential to mention the connection between preschool classroom management and the practical application of digital tools. The digital transformation of the 21st century could not leave education unaffected. Particularly in early childhood education, research shows that the use of digital applications (e.g., ClassDojo, Mood Meter, Seesaw, Puppet Pals) can optimize educational practice, enhance communication, and make learning organization and monitoring more effective (Karakose & Tülübaş, 2023).
Learning theories and interpersonal relationships in classroom management
Learning theories are the cornerstone of our efforts to deepen and understand the mechanisms by which children acquire knowledge, develop skills, and form social behaviors. They emphasize the critical importance of interpersonal relationships in the complex environment of kindergarten, both between teachers and children and among children themselves (Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
This section focuses on three fundamental learning theories: social-emotional, sociocultural, and social learning theory. It explores how these theories relate to effective classroom management and the importance of interpersonal relationships, with a focus on communication, interaction and the creation of a positive and supportive learning environment (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2019).  This means that the effective management of cοnflict leads to better relatiοnships among students and furthermore, helps students achieve impοrtant learning outcomes (Petkou et al., 2024).
Socio-emotional theory
Social-emotional theory states that the cultication of children's emotional and social skills is a necessary prerequisite for their subsequent academic and social development (Casel, 2023). In kindergarten, applying this theory means creating a safe environment with interpersonal relationships based on mutual trust and respect that strengthen children's sense of security and prevent the emergence of challenging behaviors (Zinsser et al., 2014). In other words, a safe environment allows children to express their needs and feelings, reducing the likelihood of disruptive classroom behavior. The focus is on problem prevention as the systematic teaching of basic skills—such as anger management, emotion recognition and management, and empathy development (through experiential activities such as role-playing and storytelling) provides children with the tools to effectively manage interpersonal conflicts and promote positive social interactions (Agbaria, 2020; Elias et al., 1997).
Socio-cultural theory
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (1978) emphasizes the decisive role of social interaction and guided learning for the social development of children.  In the context of classroom management, this theory is applied through collaborative activities, as organizing group work and encouraging interaction between children not only promotes academic learning but also reinforces understanding and adherence to classroom rules and the development of self-management skills (Hammond et al., 2020).
Through collaboration, children learn to negotiate, share and solve problems together, while the teacher gives them the support they need to achieve goals they could not achieve on their own. Support may include clear instructions, modelling desired behaviors, and providing feedback, and is gradually reduced as the child gains greater autonomy (Battal & Akman, 2022).
The data from this study reveal that kindergarten teachers in Greek public kindergartens often use active guidance strategies, which demonstrates the practical application of active guidance in Greek preschool education and how it helps children develop their autonomy and manage classroom challenges more effectively.
Social learning theory
According to social learning, children learn primarily by observing and imitating the behaviors of others, especially those who are important to them. This principle is directly related to classroom management, as the teacher is a strong role model for the children. Consequently, teachers directly infl theory (Bandura, 1977)uence students’ sense of belonging through interpersοnal support, autοnomy suppοrt, and methοds of instruction that suppοrt positive interactiοn with peers (Osteman, 2023).
 According to Skinner (1938), positive reinforcement, such as praise, is more effective in encouraging desired behavior than punishment. Group rewards also play a very important role, as rewarding collective performance and cooperative behavior can reinforce desired behavior in the group as a whole, e.g., when a work group is rewarded for the way its members worked together or for following the rules of the plenary session.
The three theories mentioned above converge on one common point: Effective classroom management in kindergarten depends largely on the quality of interpersonal relationships and communication. In other words, communication is the key. Continuous verbal and nonverbal communication (such as warm smiles and encouragement) creates a climate of mutual respect, understanding and cooperation in the classroom (Shewark et al., 2018). According to the study of Al-Barakat (2025), the findings underline that sοcial interactiοn, pοsitive relationships, mοtivatiοnal feedback, psychological security and emotional support are far from isοlated.
An extremely important parameter is the emotional intelligence of teachers, their ability to recognize, understand and effectively manage emotions, both their own and those of the children. This ability (which, as shown in this study, is linked to preschool teachers’ self-confidence) is critical for creating a positive and supportive classroom environment. Teachers with high emotional intelligence are better able to respond to children's emotional needs and manage conflicts effectively.
The above theories confirm that adopting preventive management strategies (e.g. creating a clearly structured learning environment with routines and rules) is much more effective in preventing behavioral problems than treating problems after they arise (Major et al., 2024). In addition, a predictable and organized environment reduces children's anxiety and promotes a sense of security. Classroom management in kindergarten is not simply a process of controlling children's behavior, but a dynamic process of social-emotional learning based on the development of positive interpersonal relationships. The research findings on the strategies used by Greek preschool teachers (such as the emphasis on praise and guidance and the limited use of punishment) are consistent with the basic principles of these theoretical approaches.
Future research could focus on further investigating how specific interpersonal skills of teachers, such as active listening and nonviolent communication (Rosenberg, 2003), influence the emotional climate of the classroom and the effectiveness of management even more profoundly. It is also worth noting that strengthening education in learning theories during the initial training of preschool teachers could improve their application.
Models of behavioral management strategies in preschool education
According to educational data, the management of preschool classrooms rarely followes a specific strategy model, but often a mixture of different models (Şahin-Sak et al., 2016) to enable teachers to confidently address and overcome challenges within the educational environment. Focusing on the type of challenges teachers face in terms of student behavior, they modify their approaches by using blended verbal and nonverbal strategies in order to cultivate a steadily evolving educational environment in which challenging student behaviors are managed by both the teacher and the students (Aksoy, 2020).
Successful classroom management is largely dependent on the academic characteristics of the teacher and the role they play in the learning process. The teacher is responsible for creating a clear and coherent classroom management plan that includes rules, strategies and the organization of the space. Establishing clear and understandable rules and enforcing them consistently is a key part of the teacher's role in maintaining order and discipline. Understanding how their own behavior and beliefs affect the classroom climate and student behavior is considered critical (Vijayan et al., 2015). For this reason, teachers must be trained in classroom management and have developed emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, thus laying the foundations on which a learning environment can be considered successful (Agbaria, 2020).
Interaction-focused models
It has been shown that the majority of teachers apply Interaction-Focused Models, emphasizing the quality of relationships between teachers and students, as well as interactions between students (Şahin-Sak et al., 2016). These models include preventative strategies, organized environments with predictable routines, and flexibility in adapting to individual needs (Zee & Koomen, 2016). Strategies include building trust by setting rule together, using rewards and consequences, active listening, using ''I-messages,'' joint conflict resolution, fostering empathy and developing social skills, and recognizing that building positive relationships is the foundation for effective behavior management. Teachers focus on the "group", aiming for active participation and linking academic and emotional support (Cadima et al., 2022a).
Classroom organization as a strategy
However, the strategies for successful classroom management are not limited to the role of the teacher, although this is of paramount importance, but also extend to the wider educational environment and the organization of the classroom. The organization of the classroom can be an important part of the strategy for the smooth functioning of the kindergarten, as it has a direct impact on children's learning opportunities and outcomes, especially language development and therefore, successful communication between students and between teachers and students. The way the classroom is organized is not simply a matter of aesthetics or tidiness, but a critical parameter that influences the educational process and children's behavior (Cutler et al., 2022). Establishing clear learning centers (e.g., reading corner, play area, area for group activities) helps children understand routines and expectations. This predictability reduces uncertainty and anxiety, leading to a smoother transition between activities and fewer out-of-bounds behaviors. Arranging tables in groups can encourage cooperation, while allowing the teacher to easily supervise all children, identify potential problems early, and intervene effectively. This is particularly important in an environment such as kindergarten, where children need constant support and guidance (Mundir et al., 2022b). Properly organized and readily accessible materials encourage students' independence in choosing activities and tidying up. This contributes to smooth operation by reducing the need for constant intervention by the teacher on simple procedural issues.
Play-based learning and positive psychology
To create a positive and safe environment for learning in kindergarten, play-based learning is an integral part of the strategy to promote good classroom management. The pleasant learning environment associated with play-based learning has a positive effect on children's behavior and facilates a smooth transition and functioning in the classroom after periods of absence. This strategy aims to manage behavior by making learning more engaging and encouraging desirable responses from children (Mundir et al., 2022b). This strategy enhances children's learning experiences in kindergarten by making learning more enagaing and meaningful and tailored to the needs and interests of young children. Furthermore, the connection between play and learning not only promotes specific learning outcomes but also leads to the creation of an attractive environment, reducing the likelihood of conflicts or deviant behavior among students (Taylor & Boyer, 2019).  
The use of positive psychology methods in preschool education is a key strategy. Positive psychology aims to promote feelings of happiness, satisfaction, and a general sense of well-being in young children. A child with a higher subjective sense of well-being is more likely to exhibit positive behaviors, is more cooperative, and is less likely to exhibit problematic behaviors that disrupt the smooth functioning of the classroom. In the context of academic progress, positive psychology strengthens behaviors related to learning as it aims to increase concentration, engagement, task persistence, and adaptability to the learning environment (Shoshani and Slone, 2017b). It cultivates children's mental resilience and makes them more capable of dealing with challenges and negative experiences without exhibiting undesirable behaviors. This promotes social behaviors and interaction skills and improves relationships between students and with the teacher. The application of positive psychology strategies consequently enhances learning motivation by linking educational content to students' interests, providing opportunities for success and recognition, and encouraging autonomy (Korpershoek et al., 2016). Thus, inductively, a constructive approach to mistakes and the promotion of reflection in students is cultivated, laying the foundations for the creation of active citizens (Sieberer-Nagler, 2015). Programs like SEARCH (Strengths, Emotional management, Attention/Awareness, Relationships, Coping, Habits) provide a roadmap for teachers to create academically and emotionally thriving classrooms (Waters & Loton, 2019).
Role of reflection in educational practice
Reflection, according to Dewey’s definition, is the active and ongoing examination of an educator's practices and beliefs with the aim of continuous improvement. In the context of kindergarten, this means that teachers can analyze classroom management methods, interactions with children and teaching strategies to identify ways to improve (Machost & Stains, 2023a). It is a powerful tool for data-driven improvement, supported by mentoring and reflective practice (Zee & Koomen, 2016). Reflection is a powerful tool for preschool teachers, as it allows them to analyze and improve classroom management strategies in a systematic and data-driven way. Teachers can create a more effective and inclusive learning environment for children by reflecting on the methods and strategies they use. Recognizing that limited time is the biggest barrier to effective reflection in kindergarten, it is recommended to build it into the routine, encourage the use of technology for easy recording and retrieval of thoughts, and collective (among colleagues) analysis (De Oliveira et al., 2022b).
Despite the wealth of international literature, there is a lack of research that deals exclusively and systematically with classroom management strategies implemented by active kindergarten teachers in public kindergartens in Greece. Greek research is minimal and focussed on primary and secondary education.  Existing international studies come from different educational systems (e.g., USA, Turkey, Australia, Nigeria, Philippines/Singapore), and their findings cannot be automatically generalized to the Greek context, which has its own characteristics (e.g., curriculum, system structure, culture, teacher training).  There is a lack of focused recording and analysis of the practices that Greek preschool teachers use in their daily practice.
<h5>Purpose of the research</h5>
The purpose of this research is to investigate and record the classroom management strategies reported to be used by kindergarten teachers working in public kindergartens in Greece.
<h5>Research questions</h5>
<ul>
<li>What classroom management strategies do preschool teachers in Greek public kindergartens use?</li>
<li>How often do Greek preschool teachers use different classroom management strategies?</li>
<li>How confident do Greek preschool teachers feel about managing current and future behavioral problems and promoting the social-emotional skills of their students?</li>
</ul>
<h5>Materials and methods</h5>
The choice of a quantitative methodological approach for this pilot study was a deliberate decision based on the primary research objective: to produce a basic, generalizable overview of classroom management strategies currently used in Greek public kindergartens. Given the identified gap in the national literature, where there is a pausity of systematic data, a quantitative design is uniquely suited to map the prevalence and frequency of specific practices in a broad sample. This approach allows for the systematic collection of standardized data that can be statistically analyzed to identify widespread patterns, trends, and frequencies, providing an important baseline for the Greek educational context. While a qualitative inquiry would yield rich, contextualized narratives, its aim is to explore the "why" behind individual actions rather than the "what" and "how often" in a population. Therefore, our quantitative study serves as an essential and logical precursor, providing the broad empirical landscape upon which future, in-depth qualitative investigations can be effectively designed and situated.
This study followed a quantitative methodological approach, using the Teacher Classroom Management Strategies Questionnaire, developed as part of the recognized Incredible Years program, as a research tool, which is an internationally recognized and rigorously validated tool. The questionnaire was requested and administered directly by Incredible Years. The internal consistency reliability of the research tool was assessed using Cronbach's alpha ( for each of its subscales. The results indicate satisfactory to excellent reliability. Specifically, the subscale of Confidence in Classroom Management (3 questions) showed excellent internal consistency (α=0.89). High reliability was also found in the Preventive Strategies (α=0.78) and Teaching Social and Emotional Skills (α=0.79) subscales, while the sub-scales Inappropriate Strategies (α=0.73) and Boundary-Setting Strategies (α=0.71) showed acceptable indices. The Guidance/Praise/Motivation subscale showed a marginally acceptable value (α=0.69). The measurement tool is a reliable instrument for recording behavior management strategies used by preschool teachers in the Greek population, with most subscales showing satisfactory to high internal consistency.
According to research ethics committee regulations, this research is low or mininal risk, so the use of informed consent was not required. Participants were verbally informed of the purpose, objectives and voluntary nature of the study. This approach was appropriate as the research did not collect any personal, sensitive, demographic, sexual, regional, or economic data that could lead to the identification of individuals. All necessary procedures were followed to ensure the confidentiality and privacy of the participants. During the research process, the anonymity of the respondents was fully preserved, and the data was only used for academic purposes and for analysis, in accordance with ethical guidelines.
For the purposes of this study, it was decided to use specific sections of the original questionnaire: Section A, which explores the self-efficacy of preschool teachers in managing student behavior in the classroom, and Section B, which records the use of specific teaching and classroom management techniques. A key methodological choice concerned Section B, as participants were asked to report exclusively on the frequency of use of the techniques described, while the scale for evaluating the usefulness of these techniques by teachers was not included in the data collection. This decision was made consciously, as the primary objective of this study was to capture how often specific management strategies are applied by Greek kindergarten teachers in public schools, rather than how they perceive their practical value or effectiveness, i.e., focusing on recording existing practice in terms of frequency.
Its use ensures that our findings are based on a standardized framework, which increases the reliability of the study and enables meaningful comparisons with the extensive international literature. The decision to use only the sections on teacher self-efficacy and frequency of strategy use and to omit the "Usefulness" subscale was a deliberated methodological decision. The main aim of this research was to capture the reported application of strategies in practice, addressing the fundamental question of what Greek teachers actually do. Introducing the dimension of perceived "usefulness" would conflate two distinct constructs: behavior (frequency of use) and opinion (perceived effectiveness). By focusing solely on frequency, this study maintains a clear and unbiased analytical lens on teacher’s practice and creates an umpertant record of current behaviors. The investigation of teachers' beliefs about the usefulness of these strategies constitutes a separate, albeit important, research question that can be more meaningfully explored once this foundational data on practice is established.
The sample for this study included kindergarten teachers from public kindergartens in Greece, of various ages and both genders, coming from urban, semi-urban, and rural areas. A total of 120 preschool teachers participated in the study. More specifically, in terms of gender, the majority of participants were women (117) with a percentage of 97.5%, while men accounted for 3 (2.5%). No participant declared another gender (0%). In terms of age, the participants were divided into the following age groups: 11 people belonged to the 22-30 age group (9.2%), 38 people in the 31-40 age group (31.7%), 41 people in the 41-50 age group (34.2%), and 30 people in the 51+ age group (25%). In terms of educational level, 43 participants are university graduates (35.8%), 74 hold a master's degree (61.7%), 2 hold a doctoral degree (1.7%), and 1 participant has another level of education (0.8%). Finally, in terms of educational experience, 27 participants have 0-5 years of experience (22.5%), 24 have 6-10 years (20%), 11 have 11-15 years (9.2%), and 58 have 16 or more years of experience (48.3%). Participants were selected using convenience sampling. Specifically, the questionnaire was distributed electronically through promotion to the researchers' personal contacts and posted on social media groups where kindergarten teachers from all over Greece participate.
For the data collection, sections A and B of the Teacher Classroom Management Strategies Questionnaire were converted into electronic form using the Google Forms platform. This platform was chosen because it facilitates the sharing and the competition of the questionnaire. The link to the electronic questionnaire was then distributed to the potential sample of 120 public kindergarten teachers using the convenience sampling method, as described above (promotion to acquaintances and posting on social media groups). Participation in the survey was strictly voluntary and anonymous. At the beginning of the questionnaire, there was information about the purpose of the survey, assurance of anonymity and confidentiality of responses, and further completion of the questionnaire was tantamount to consent to participate. After the end of the data collection, the responses collected through Google Forms were automatically exported to an Excel file. This file was the database for further quantitative statistical analysis of the data.  The responses in Section A (Self-confidence) were coded on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all confident, 2 = Minimally confident, 3 = Somewhat confident, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Quite confident, 6 = Very confident, 7 = Absolutely confident).  The responses in Section B (Frequency) were coded on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Rarely/Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = About half the time, 4 = Often, 5 = Very often).  A descriptive statistical analysis (Mean - M, Standard Deviation - SD) was performed for each question.
While the quantitative design was optimal for the exploratory aims of this study, the authors recognize the inherent limitations of this approach when considered in isolation. By its nature, this method provides a comprehensive overview of the frequency of reported behaviors but does not capture the rich, qualitative dimensions that underlie them. In particular, this study does not address the complex considerations, pedagogical philosophies, or situational contexts that influence a teacher's decision to select one strategy over another. It cannot illuminate how these practices are adapted to the needs of individual children or the specific classroom dynamics, nor does it explore teachers' own reflections on the success or failure of a given intervention in a specific instance. These deeper, interpretive insights are beyond the scope of a quantitative survey research and are best addressed through qualitative methods such as semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and case studies. Therefore, the findings of this paper should be viewed as a critical first step in mapping the terrain, providing the necessary empirical framework to guide subsequent, more nuanced qualitative inquiry.
<h5>Results</h5>
Based on the socio-demographic characteristics of the interview guide, it was found that the largest percentage   participating teachers were female aged between thirty and fifty-five years. More than half (61,7%) hold a master's degree, and approximately half (48,3%) have over 16 years of experience.
                                                                                    Table 1. Demographic characteristics of sample
<img src="https://file.luminescience.cn/68cbb42ba66081758180395" alt="" width="909" height="576" data-extentions-extra-ocr-id="63cb8a046766913d96f8f47fc9a2a310" />
                             Table 2. Confidence in classroom management means(M) and standard deviations (SD) for the self-confidence scale
<img src="https://file.luminescience.cn/68cbb44d1d92c1758180429" alt="" width="914" height="204" data-extentions-extra-ocr-id="444cb408b26c966dc70703d8c2c9f8ed" />
The results of the survey showed high levels of confidence among the teachers in the sample in classroom management. Specifically, the mean (M) for the overall confidence scale was 5.70 (standard deviation - SD = 1.14), indicating that teachers feel between ''fairly'' and ''very confident.'' More specifically, in the individual areas of self-confidence, the means and standard deviations were as follows:
<ul>
<li> Self-confidence in managing current behavioral problems (A01): M = 5.72, SD = 1.26</li>
<li> Confidence in managing future behavioral problems (A02): M = 5.54, SD = 1.14</li>
<li> Confidence in teaching social-emotional skills (A03): M = 5.83, SD = 1.02</li>
</ul>
It is observed that teachers show slightly higher confidence in teaching social-emotional skills (A03) and managing current problems (A01) compared to managing future problems (A02). However, confidence levels remain high in all areas.
                                 Table 3. Classroom management strategies means and standard deviations of frequency of strategy use by subscale
<img src="https://file.luminescience.cn/68cba7bdcbe141758177213" alt="" width="846" height="244" data-extentions-extra-ocr-id="87da7b266e700c7df3e1a2252f18ffa0" />
Teachers reported ''Frequent'' use of positive strategies overall (M=4.07). Preventive Strategies (M=4.16) and Social and Emotional Teaching Strategies (M=4.03) were reported slightly more frequently than Guidance/Praise/Motivation (M=3.70), although all categories are used frequently. Boundary-setting strategies are used with moderate frequency, on average ''About Half the Time'' (M=3.01). Strategies considered inappropriate were reported with the lowest frequency, on average between ''Rarely/Never'' and ''Sometimes'' (M=1.92), which is a positive finding.
<img src="https://file.luminescience.cn/68cba90b67b071758177547" alt="" width="900" height="506" data-extentions-extra-ocr-id="ed50cf766daf68a4fcdd7b4ec5c132b9" />
                                                                                    Figure 1. Individual strategies with higher and lower frequency
Highest frequency: The strategies reported with the highest frequency of use (''Very Often'') include:
<ul>
<li>   B04: Verbal praise (M=4.81, SD=0.44)</li>
<li>   B01: Active guidance of positive social skills (M=4.73, SD=0.51)</li>
<li>  B26: Encouragement/guidance to persevere despite difficulties (M=4.48, SD=0.66)</li>
<li>  B21: Clear instructions (M=4.42, SD=0.71)</li>
<li>  B14: Verbal intervention for reset (M=4.25, SD=0.71)</li>
</ul>
Lowest frequency: The strategies reported with the lowest frequency of use (''Rarely/Never'') include:
<ul>
<li>  B11: Sending child home (M=1.06, SD=0.28)</li>
<li>  B09: Sending the child to the principal's office (M=1.15, SD=0.44)</li>
<li>  B07: Physical restraint (M=1.35, SD=0.62)</li>
<li>  B27: Sending written notes about problems (M=1.38, SD=0.68)</li>
<li>  B28: Sending positive written notes (M=1.46, SD=0.83)</li>
<li>  B31: Calling parents to praise good behavior (M=1.72, SD=0.99)</li>
</ul>
<h5>Discussion</h5>
The findings of this study constitute an important first record of the classroom management strategies reported to be used by Greek public school kindergarten teachers, filling a research gap in our country. The high level of self-confidence observed among teachers is consistent with the international literature, which links self-efficacy (Bay, 2020; Poulou et al., 2019) with classroom management practices. It is likely that the extensive professional experience and high academic training of the sample contribute significantly to this sense of competence.
The prevalence of positive, preventive, and social-emotional strategies is fully aligned with the theoretical principles based on the relevant theoretical framework (Social-Emotional Learning - Casel, 2023; Zinsser et al., 2014; Sociocultural Theory - Vygotsky, 1978; Hammond et al., 2020; Social Learning - Bandura, 1977; Sieberer-Nagler, 2015). The frequent use of verbal praise and active guidance is a practical application of positive reinforcement (Skinner, 1938) and Vygotsky's concept of scaffolding, respectively. At the same time, the emphasis on encouraging persistence and providing clear instructions reinforces the creation of a predictable and supportive learning environment, reducing the need for reactive interventions (Major et al., 2024; Walker et al., 1996).
The moderate use of boundary-setting strategies raises interesting questions. It is possible that preschool teachers perceive some of these techniques (e.g., time out, ignoring undesirable behavior) as less developmentally appropriate or effective for preschool age, preferring more direct, verbal interventions such as reminding children of rules. Managing boundaries in preschool age requires particular sensitivity and striking a balance between establishing clear rules and maintaining a positive and encouraging classroom climate. Their moderate use may reflect this difficulty or a conscious pedagogical choice to limit their application.
The infrequent use of inappropriate strategies is a strong positive finding, indicating professionalism and alignment with contemporary pedagogical principles and the protection of children's rights. However, the report of the occasional use of a loud voice or verbal admonishement cannot be overlooked. This finding may suggest that despite the prevalence of a positive approach, some teachers instinctively or occasionally resort to less constructive tactics in moments of high pressure or intense behavioral challenges. This highlights the importance of ongoing professional development to help teachers manage stress and deal with difficult behaviors in the classroom.
However, one of the most notable findings is the limited communication with parents about their children's behavior, whether positive or negative. Collaboration between school and family is internationally recognized as a critical factor in the success of behavioral interventions and the holistic development of the child (Gordon, 2003). The low frequency of this communication may be due to factors such as increased workload limiting available time, the lack of clear institutionalised procedures for school-family communication on behavioural issues, or possibly the perception of some teachers that systematically informing parents about these issues is not of primary importance or particularly effective. This emerges as an important area that needs attention and improvement.
Overall, the research provides valuable data confirming that the Greek preschool teachers in the sample largely apply modern, positive and scientifically proven classroom management practices. At the same time, it highlights aspects that require further attention, such as optimizing the use of boundary setting strategies and the imperative need to strengthen communication and cooperation with families. These results highlight the importance of designing targeted training programs and creating support structures for preschool teachers, focusing on skills to deal with challenging behaviors and developing effective communication channels with parents.
Conflict management skills are crucial in initial teacher training to constructively handling various school conflicts (Valente, Lourenço & Németh, 2020).  The findings of this study shed light on the classroom management strategies employed by Greek kindergarten teachers, offering valuable insights into their alignment with contemporary pedagogical theories and practices. By situating these results within the broader international literature and the specific cultural context of Greece, this discussion provides a critical interpretation of the data, explores its implications, and identifies directions for future research.
<h5>Theoretical and empirical alignment</h5>
The predominant use of positive, preventive, and socio-emotional strategies (M = 4.07) emphasizes the influence of socio-emotional learning (SEL) frameworks in Greek kindergartens. These results are in line with recent research findings that emphasizing the role of emotionally supportive classrooms in promoting children's self-regulation and prosocial behaviors (Zinsser et al., 2022). For instance, the frequent use of verbal praise (M = 4.81) and active guidance (M = 4.73) reflects the principles of positive behavior support (PBS), which have been shown to reduce disruptive behaviors while promoting autonomy (Korpershoek et al., 2020). This approach resonates with global trends in early childhood education, where SEL is increasingly integrated into national curricula (OECD, 2023).
From a socio-cultural perspective (Vygotsky, 1978), the emphasis on collaborative activities and guided interactions highlights the Greek teachers' adherence to scaffolding techniques. Such practices are critical in culturally diverse classrooms, where peer learning and teacher mediation facilitate equitable participation (Hammond et al., 2021). However, the moderate use of boundary-setting strategies (M = 3.01) suggests a potential tension between fostering autonomy and maintaining structure—a challenge identified in recent studies of European kindergartens (Cutler et al., 2023). This finding invites further exploration of how Greek teachers balance flexibility and consistency, particularly in heterogeneous classrooms.
The application of social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) is evident in strategies that involve modelling desired behaviors, using positive reinforcement and setting clear routines and expectations. Children in kindergarten are highly impressionable and learn significantly through observation and imitation. Therefore, teachers who consistently model respect, patience, and effective problem-solving provide powerful examples for their young learners. The findings regarding the use of praise, rewards, or visual cues for behavior management would reflect an application of social learning principles, where positive behaviors are reinforced, and clear expectations minimize ambiguity.
<h5>Cultural and contextual nuances</h5>
The limited parent-teacher communication (M = 1.72 for positive notes) contrasts with international models that prioritize family engagement (e.g., the Incredible Years program; Major et al., 2023). This discrepancy may reflect systemic barriers in Greece, such as large class sizes or limited institutional support for parental involvement (Al-Barakat et al., 2024). Alternatively, it could signify a cultural preference for teacher-led management, as observed in other Mediterranean contexts (Şahin-Sak et al., 2023). Qualitative research is needed to disentangle these factors and assess their impact on child outcomes.
<h5>Conclusion</h5>
This study, which examined the classroom management strategies reported by 120 kindergarten teachers in public kindergartens in Greece, provided important results. Firstly, the participanting teachers showed a high level of confidence in their ability to manage current and future behavioral problems and to promote children's social-emotional skills. This sense of competence appears to be reflected in the practices they reported using.
The kindergarten teachers participating in the study reported ''frequent'' use of positive management strategies overall. In particular, Preventive Strategies and Social and Emotional Teaching Strategies show the highest frequency of use, suggesting a prevention-oriented and holistic development approach. This is followed by Guidance, Praise & Motivation Strategies, which are also frequently used. Among the individual practices, verbal praise and active guidance on positive social skills emerged as the most frequently used, underpinning the image of positively orientated classroom management.
In contrast, Boundary-Setting Strategies (e.g., time out, ignoring, warnings) were reported with moderate frequency, with verbal interventions for reseting being the most common within this category. This finding suggests possible uncertainty or selective use of these techniques at preschool age.
It is extremely encouraging to note that the frequency of the use of Inappropriate Strategies, such as sending the child home or to the principal's office and physical restraint, is very low. Nevertheless, the occasional use of practices such as raising the voice or reprimanding/separating indicates room for further improvement.
Finally, the survey revealed a remarkably low frequency of communication with parents in the form of written notes or by telephone, for both negative and positive behavioral issues. This finding points to a possible weakness in the collaboration between school and family when it comes to reinforce positive behavior.
Overall, the results paint a profile of Greek preschool teachers (in this sample) who feel adequate and prefer positive, preventive, and socio-emotionally focused classroom management strategies, in line with contemporary pedagogical concepts. However, there are also areas that require further investigation and possible intervention, such as the use of boundary-setting strategies and strengthening communication with families.
<h5>Research limitations</h5>
When interpreting the findings of this study, it is important to recognize certain key limitations. One of the main limitations concerns the sampling method: convenience sampling via electronic distribution was used. This means that the results cannot be generalized with certainty to all kindergarten teachers in public schools in Greece, as the sample may not be fully representative in terms of aspects such as geographical coverage or the voluntary nature of participation, which could attract individuals with a particular interest in the topic.
In addition, the research was based solely on self-reported data, i.e., teachers' responses to a questionnaire. Data of this type are vulnerable to social desirability bias (where participants may report practices that are considered ''correct'' rather than those they actually implement) and recall bias. It is also important to note that this approach does not include direct observation of classroom practices.
Another limitation relates to the quantitative approach of the research. Since the study mainly provides frequency and mean data, it does not address the qualitative dimensions of classroom management, such as the specific context in which the strategies are applied, the underlying reasons for their selection, or teachers' detailed perceptions of their effectiveness in specific situations.
Finally, the research design is cross-sectional, reflecting the views and practices reported at a specific point in time. Therefore, the study is not able to detect changes in classroom management strategies over time or as a result of possible interventions or educational developments.
<h5>Recommendations</h5>
Following the findings of this study and taking into account its recognized limitations, important directions emerge for both future research activity and the substantial improvement of educational practices and policy-making in the field of preschool education in Greece.
With regard to the research dimension, further exploration through a qualitative investigation is considered necessary. This can be achieved by conducting interviews, focus groups, or case studies with Greek preschool teachers. The aim is to gain an in-depth understanding of the reasons that lead them to choose certain strategies, to detail the challenges they face in their daily practice, to explore their perceptions of the effectiveness of different methods — especially boundary-setting strategies—and to analyze how they adapt their practices to the unique context of their classroom. In addition, it is important to design classroom observation studies. Direct observation can provide a valuable comparison between teachers’ self-reported practices and actual behaviors, while recording interactions in real time.
At the same time, future research should focus on effectiveness studies that systematically examine the relationship between the specific classroom management strategies used by Greek preschool teachers and various indicators of children’s development, such as their social-emotional development, their level of engagement in the learning process, and the development of their academic skills. Another important direction is the investigation of cooperation between school and family. Research should focus on the practices, obstacles, and factors that facilitate effective communication and cooperation between preschool teachers and parents in Greece, particularly in relation to issues of managing children's behavior. It is also recommended that training programs be systematically evaluated to examine the impact of initial training and continuing professional development programs that focus on classroom management, on both the practices adopted by Greek preschool teachers and their confidence. Finally, it would be valuable to conduct comparative studies between different educational contexts within Greece (e.g., public versus private preschools, urban versus rural areas) in order to identify possible differences in the practices applied and the needs of teachers. In addition, longitudinal studies could provide a more dynamic picture by tracking the evolution of kindergarten teachers' classroom management strategies throughout their careers.
Future research should consider the use of mixed methods and incorporate qualitative data through classroom observations, teacher interviews, and focus groups to gain deeper insights into the nuances of classroom management practices and the reasons behind teachers' decisions. Longitudinal studies could also track the evolution of management strategies and their long-term impact on children’s development. Extending the study to a larger, nationally representative sample of Greek kindergartens would enhance the generalizability of the findings and provide a more comprehensive picture of classroom management practices across the country. Further research could also explore the relationship between teacher’s specific training, experience, and the application of certain management strategies.
Also, inferential statistical methods should be applied in future studies to identify significant relationships between variables (e.g., teacher experience, training, class size, and specific management strategies) and to explore potential causal links. Longitudinal studies could also track the long-term impact of different management strategies on children's socio-emotional development and academic outcomes.
Although the current study focuses on Greek public kindergartens, it is valuable to compare these results with the international literature. For instance, if Greek teachers demonstrate a strong inclination to promote socio-emotional skills, this in line with global trends advocating for holistic child development. However, there might be unique aspects. For example, the influence of specific national curricula or cultural values on classroom management approaches could lead to distinctions. Studies from other European countries or beyond may reveal similarities in the importance of teacher behavior and strategies, but also differences in specific implementation or emphasis depending on pedagogical traditions and policy frameworks. The current study contributes to this comparative understanding by providing specific data from the Greek context.
<h5>Research implications</h5>
Beyond the proposed research directions, the results of this study also offer concrete pointers for improving educational practice and policy-making. An important focus is the targeted training of active kindergarten teachers. Professional development programs should be developed and provided, focusing on strengthening knowledge and skills related to developmentally appropriate and effective boundary-setting techniques for preschoolers, while offering alternatives to less desirable or ineffective practices. Particular attention should be paid to the positive and preventative management of intense or challenging behaviors, including the promotion of stress self-management skills for the educator themselves. In addition, the training should strengthen skills and provide practical tools to preschool teachers for effective communication and cooperation with parents, both for prevention and for jointly addressing behavioral issues.
In addition to training, it is important to strengthen the learning communities among preschool teachers. Encouraging the creation of structures (e.g., through meetings, online forums, mentoring programs) would facilitate the exchange of good practices, the discussion of daily challenges, and mutual support in classroom management issues. In addition, the development of support materials—such as manuals, guides, or other resources—adapted to the Greek educational context and presenting evidence-based and effective strategies for classroom management  in preschool education would be particularly useful. At the policy level, it is necessary to develop and implement measures that facilitate the implementation of positive practices. Such measures could include reducing the number of children per class, providing kindergarten teachers with sufficient time to collaborate with parents and colleagues, and providing ensuring access to specialized personnel, such as school psychologists or social workers, for support in more complex cases. Finally, emphasis on the initial training of future kindergarten teachers is crucial. The curricula of education departments should incorporate extensive theoretical and practical training in classroom management, placing particular emphasis on positive, preventive, and socio-emotional approaches, as well as effective communication and collaboration with families.
<h5>Practical and policy implications</h5>
Teacher training
Findings support targeted professional development programs that integrate SEL and culturally responsive practices (Karakose et al., 2023). Workshops on proactive strategies (e.g., visual schedules, collaborative rule-making) could address gaps in boundary-setting while aligning with Greek pedagogical values.  Specifically, if the study identifies areas where certain useful strategies (e.g., consistent, explicit boundary-setting combined with positive guidance) are underutilized, professional development programs could offer targeted training modules. These modules could include practical workshops on:
<ul>
<li>Structured proactive strategies: Training on developing and implementing clear, visual routines and rules in the classroom in collaboration with children, enhancing predictability and reducing behavioral issues.</li>
<li>Advanced positive reinforcement techniques: Moving beyond general praise to specific, descriptive feedback that links behavior to positive outcomes.</li>
<li>Effective parent-teacher partnerships in classroom management: Developing strategies for consistent and constructive communication with parents about children's behavior and classroom expectations, fostering a shared approach to support child development.</li>
</ul>
Policy reforms
Policymakers should consider mandating smaller class sizes and dedicated time for parent-teacher collaboration, as these structural changes are linked to improved management efficacy (OECD, 2023).  Policies could be strengthened to explicitly endorse and support pedagogical approaches that:
<ul>
<li>Prioritize socio-emotional development: Ensuring that policy documents highlight the integral role of classroom management in fostering children's emotional intelligence and social competence.</li>
<li>Promote collaborative and participatory learning environments: Encouraging strategies that involve children in co-creation of classroom norms and problem-solving, aligning with a democratic model of education.</li>
<li>Mandate continuous professional development: Allocating resources for ongoing training programs that equip teachers with evidence-based classroom management techniques, particularly focusing on areas identified as less frequently utilized.</li>
<li>Facilitate parent-school collaboration: Developing clearer guidelines and support mechanisms for schools to encourage parental involvement in children's educational and behavioral development, potentially through digital platforms or designated liaison roles.</li>
</ul>
Research priorities
Future studies should use mixed-methods designs to examine how teacher beliefs and classroom dynamics influence strategy selection. Longitudinal data could further explore the impact of these practices on children's long-term development.  Theoretically, this study provides empirical support for the practical applicability of socio-emotional, socio-cultural, and social learning theories in the real world of kindergarten settings. It shows how these theoretical constructs manifest themselves in the daily practices of teachers, underscoring their relevance beyond abstract academic discourse.
To summarize, this pilot study provides valuable initial insights into classroom management strategies in Greek public kindergartens. By interpreting these findings through established theoretical frameworks and considering their implications, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of effective pedagogical practices in early childhood education and paves the way for further, more extensive investigations.
<h5>Authors' contributions</h5>
All authors reviewed and discussed the draft manuscript and contributed to the final version and gave their approval for publication.
Conceptualization, D.P..; methodology, Ζ.G.; validation, A.K, formal analysis, A.G; investigation, I.K; A.G; resources, A.K; data curation, Z.G; writing—original draft preparation, D.P. and A.G.; writing review and editing, A.G.; visualization, I.K.; supervision, D.P.; project administration, D.P.
<h5>Conflicts of interest</h5>
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
<h5>Funding</h5>
This research received no external funding.
<h5>Data availability</h5>
The data sets generated by the survey and analyzed during the current study, are available upon request from the corresponding author.
<h5>Declarations</h5>
Ethical approval and participant consent or all procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study.

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Petkou, D., Galani, A., Galani, Z., Katsipi, A., & Kraniti, I. (2025). Classroom management strategies in Greek public kindergartens: Α pilot study. Research on Preschool and Primary Education, 3(1), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.55976/rppe.320251421191-206

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