<bold>Literature </bold>
<bold>r</bold>
<bold>eview</bold>
Empathy is one of the most fundamental and complex concepts in social psychology and cognitive neuroscience (Decety & Cowell, 2014). Despite its clear recognition as a central component of human sociality, there is no single, universally accepted definition (Maibom, 2012). Generally, empathy is defined as an individual's capacity to experience and understand the mental state (thoughts, emotions, intentions) of another person (Read, 2019).
The multidimensional nature of this phenomenon was recognized as early as the first social theorists. Smith (1759) made the initial distinction between instinctive sympathy (or empathy), which he described as a rapid, involuntary, emotional reaction, and "intellectualized sympathy," which concerns the ability to recognize the emotional experiences of others without personally experiencing that state. Spencer (1870) echoed this distinction between the instinctive and intellectual dimensions, laying the groundwork for the modern separation of these concepts.
<bold>Cognitive and </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>motional </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>mpathy</bold>
Modern research has moved away from the "monolithic" concept of empathy, advocating for its replacement with more precise and distinct terms (Decety & Cowell, 2014). The prevailing view is that empathy is a multidimensional construct, compromising at least two core components that operate in parallel but can be neurocognitively and behaviorally dissociated (Blair, 2005): cognitive and emotional empathy.
Cognitive empathy refers to the mental capacity to understand another person's mental state without necessarily involving emotional engagement. It is the ability to "put oneself in another's shoes" (Maibom, 2012). Its central function is Perspective-Taking (PT), a conscious effort to adopt another's viewpoint to understand how they perceive the world (Davis, 1983). This ability is closely related to Theory of Mind (ToM), which concerns an individual's ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) to themselves and others (Blair, 2005). Perspective-taking is critical, as it allows teachers to understand the challenges of daily parenting and parents to recognize the demands of the teaching role.
Emotional empathy refers to the capacity to automatically react to or experience the emotions felt by another person (Decety & Cowell, 2014). It is further divided into two main forms (Maibom, 2012). The first is emotional sharing (emotional contagion), which is the automatic and involuntary tendency to experience the same emotion as another person. The second is empathic concern (Sympathy - EC), which describes the development of feelings of warmth and concern towards another, especially in instances of distress (Davis, 1983). This dimension often leads to prosocial action—actions aimed at providing help and relief to the other person (Maibom, 2012).
It is crucial to distinguish empathic concern (EC) from personal distress (PD). Personal Distress is an egocentric, unpleasant emotional reaction (e.g., anxiety, fear) experienced by the observer when witnessing someone else's suffering (Davis, 1983). Personal distress does not lead to altruistic action but rather to an attempts to avoid the situation or alleviate one's own discomfort; therefore, it is strictly separated from genuine empathic concern.
<bold>Neurocognitive </bold>
<bold>d</bold>
<bold>issociation of </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>mpathy </bold>
<bold>d</bold>
<bold>imensions</bold>
Historically, cognitive and emotional elements were often viewed as an interdependent system. However, modern neuroscience and psychology argue that they are dissociable phenomena (Blair, 2005). This dissociation is supported by the independence of measurements in psychometric tools, such as the Davis (1980) scale, where the Cognitive (Perspective-Taking) and Emotional (Empathic Concern/Personal Distress) subscales are relatively independent.
Perspective-taking (PT) correlates positively with empathic concern (EC) and negatively with Personal Distress (PD). Furthermore, neurocognitive dissociation observed in clinical populations provides strong evidence: individuals with psychopathy show clear dysfunction in emotional empathy but not in cognitive empathy (Theory of Mind), whereas individuals with autism have difficulties in Cognitive Empathy (ToM) but do not show such distinct impairments in emotional empathy (Blair, 2005).
<bold>Empathy in the </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>ducational </bold>
<bold>c</bold>
<bold>ontext</bold>
International literature recognizes empathy as a critical pedagogical skill and a fundamental socio-emotional competency (Aldrup et al., 2022). Its importance is distinguished by its dimensions, as the function of Cognitive Empathy differs from that of Emotional Empathy, with both decisively influencing classroom climate, student behavior, and teaching effectiveness.
Cognitive Empathy (Perspective-Taking) enables teachers to adopt the viewpoint of the student or parent, understanding the intentions and beliefs that guide their behavior (Gimbert et al., 2023). This ability is pivotal for differentiated instruction and conflict resolution, as it leads to an accurate interpretation of the underlying causes of challenging behavior (Graziano et al., 2024). Particularly within the framework of inclusive education, cognitive empathy is linked to positive attitudes toward diversity and an enhanced capacity for teachers to manage complex emotional situations, interpreting problematic behavior as a sign of deeper need or distress rather than ill intent (Graziano et al., 2024).
On the other hand, Emotional Empathy (Empathic Concern) fosters an environment of safety and emotional connection. Teachers with high emotional empathy demonstrate greater sensitivity to students' emotional needs, creating a setting of trust and academic engagement (Hossain, 2025). Empathic teachers serve as "regulators" of the emotional climate, reducing conflicts and improving students' mental health (Ampofo et al., 2025). This dimension strengthens trust within the relationship (Cline, 2023) and, equally importantly, protects teachers from professional burnout caused by Personal Distress (Aldrup et al., 2022).
The significance of empathy culminates in the school-family relationship, as it is a fundamental prerequisite for developing trust and effective communication between teachers and parents. As noted by Martin de Hijas-Larrea et al. (2025), the capacity for Perspective-Taking enhances the teacher's role as a mediator between the child's needs and parental expectations. Empathy allows the teacher to adopt the parent's perspective, understand family pressures, and build relationships of mutual trust (Cline, 2023). This psychological function is crucial for overcoming typical barriers and transforming simple communication into substantial collaboration (Cline, 2023). Consequently, empathy is now recognized as a core component of Social-Emotional Learning (SEL), constituting an essential professional competency for the modern educator (Gimbert et al., 2023).
<bold>Parental </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>mpathy and the </bold>
<bold>f</bold>
<bold>amily </bold>
<bold>c</bold>
<bold>ontext</bold>
Parental empathy constitutes an integral aspect of parenting and is directly linked to the capacity to provide warmth, support, and positive communication (Borelli et al., 2021). A parent's ability to respond empathically to their child's needs has a fundamental impact on the child's development, as it is associated with optimal socio-emotional growth (Reid et al., 2013). Borelli et al. (2021) also highlight that parental empathy enhances children's cooperation and self-regulation, while simultaneously strengthening their psychological resilience. When children perceive their parents' empathy, they develop stronger emotional security and a more positive self-image (Wang & Fredricks, 2013).
Parental empathy also extends its positive influence into the school context. Parents who possess the ability to understand the teacher's perspective tend to adopt more collaborative attitudes and participate actively in school processes, thereby avoiding role conflicts (Omar et al., 2024). However, factors such as stress, parental burnout, and socioeconomic pressures can limit the expression of empathy or hinder collaboration with the school (Borelli et al., 2021). The need to investigate
<bold>The </bold>
<bold>f</bold>
<bold>undamental </bold>
<bold>i</bold>
<bold>mportance of the </bold>
<bold>s</bold>
<bold>chool-</bold>
<bold>f</bold>
<bold>amily </bold>
<bold>r</bold>
<bold>elationship</bold>
Modern educational research highlights the school-family relationship as a decisive factor in students' academic success, situated within the broader ecological framework of development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). According to Bronfenbrenner's model, the interaction between the child's two primary microsystems - the family and the school - constitutes the Mesosystem. The effective functioning of this Mesosystem, which directly depends on the quality of communication and role alignment (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001), is vital for the student's holistic development and adaptation. The works of Epstein (2018) and Christenson & Sheridan (2001) establish this collaboration as an indispensable prerequisite. Furthermore, extensive meta-analyses support the direct link between family involvement and an improved learning outcomes and higher success rates, particularly in Primary Education (Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Fan & Chen, 2001).
The interaction between the two parties occurs primarily through communication. Effective communication is the means by which both parties exchange knowledge about the child, agree on common goals, and resolve conflicts (Richardson, 2022). Moreover, empirical studies have shown that frequent, high-quality communication between teachers and families enhances students' school engagement, reduces behavioral difficulties, and fosters a climate of cohesiveness (Kraft & Dougherty, 2013).
However, the development of this collaboration is often not seamless and is marked by significant challenges. In the Greek educational context, difficulties are frequently identified in the lack of bidirectional information flow, limited interaction time, and differing perceptions of what constitutes "parental involvement" (Miller & Stine, 2023; Papadopoulos & Gkaintatzi, 2023). Overcoming these barriers requires the cultivation of psychosocial skills, most notably empathy.
<bold>Empathy as a </bold>
<bold>c</bold>
<bold>atalyst for </bold>
<bold>q</bold>
<bold>uality </bold>
<bold>c</bold>
<bold>ommunication</bold>
Empathy is identified in the literature as a central pillar of effective communication, serving as a connecting link between trust and emotional intelligence (Georgiou, 2016; Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022).
Firstly, trust forms the foundation of any successful collaboration. When mutual trust exists, parents feel comfortable sharing information, and teachers feel respected in their professional role, thereby reducing defensive behaviors (Georgiou, 2016). Empathy enhances trust because it expresses one party's intention to understand the emotions and challenges of the other.
Additionally, empathy is considered essential for managing the emotional load of the relationship, which is often a source of misunderstandings or conflicts (Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022). The ability of the teacher or the parent to employ empathic listening (Martín de Hijas-Larrea et al., 2025) allows for more effective recognition of the other side's needs and motives (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). Moreover, empathic communication between the two parties does not only benefit their relationship; it is also noted to enhance the moral, social, and emotional skills of the students themselves (Omar et al., 2024).
At a theoretical level, the literature indicates that empathy transforms communication from transactional to collaborative. The ability to adopt another's perspective and respond with compassion (the emotional dimension assessed by the TEQ) is essential for creating a climate of psychological safety (Cline, 2023). Mutual empathic understanding enables parties to recognize and respect distinct role boundaries (teacher/professional vs. parent/caregiver), reducing overlaps and conflicts that often result in disengagement (Miller & Stine, 2023). Consequently, although the present research does not directly measure communication, investigating empathy - as a necessary prerequisite for effective communication - remains fundamental to understanding the dynamics of the school-family relationship.
<bold>Comparative </bold>
<bold>s</bold>
<bold>tudies on </bold>
<bold>e</bold>
<bold>mpathy </bold>
<bold>l</bold>
<bold>evels</bold>
The need for a comparative investigation of empathy levels between teachers and parents arises from the recognition of the diverse roles, expectations, and levels of involvement inherent in each group within the school-family relationship (Miller & Stine, 2023; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). Specifically, as the teacher's role is professional and the parent's is personal—implying different socio-cultural expectations, emotional involvement, and potentially varying levels of burnout—it is reasonable to expect that the empathy levels of these two groups may differ.
International literature has already highlighted systematic differences in psychological characteristics between these two populations. Notably, research by Costa-López et al. (2023), although focused on a different variable (environmental sensitivity), identified significant differences depending on role and gender. These findings strengthen the theoretical foundation of the present study, suggesting that professional and parental roles exert different influences on interpersonal skills.
In the Greek context, comparative research on empathy is extremely limited, particularly in Primary Education. At the same time, validation studies of the TEQ in the Greek population have consistently shown the influence of gender, with women scoring higher in emotional empathy (Kourmousi et al., 2017). However, the thesis by Mazokopaki (2021), which utilized the same tool (TEQ) to compare empathy between teachers and parents in Secondary Education, serves as a significant point of reference. The findings of that study indicated that teachers exhibited higher levels of empathy than parents, which may be attributed to professional training and the ongoing need for emotional regulation required by the teaching role (Angelopoulou & Babalis, 2018).
Comparing empathy levels in the Prefecture of Drama constitutes the first step toward establishing an empirical basis that will allow conclusions to be drawn about the implications of these differences for school-family communication. If differences are identified, this may indicate the need for targeted empathy-enhancing interventions, as proposed by Lee and Lee (2024), with the ultimate aim of fostering a more effective collaborative climate.
The present study
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>g</bold>
<bold>ap</bold>
The preceding literature review has shown that empathy constitutes a multidimensional skill (Maibom, 2012), critical for the professional role of the teacher (Aldrup et al., 2022) and fundamental for effective communication based on trust (Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022). Nevertheless, although the importance of empathy is theoretically recognized, there is a clear empirical gap regarding the comparative quantitative measurement of its levels between parents and teachers, specifically within the context of Greek Primary Education.
Although both international (Aldrup et al., 2022; Borelli et al., 2021) and Greek literature (Kourmousi et al., 2017) highlight the importance of empathy for the quality of educational and parental functioning, a significant research gap remains. Most studies focus on a single aspect of the relationship (such as communication) from either the teachers' or the parents' perspective alone; very few examine the social process holistically or report consistent improvement in this variable for both groups simultaneously (Lee & Lee, 2024). As a result, the literature lacks a systematic, comparative investigation of empathy levels between these two key stakeholders in Greek primary education.
The rationale for the present research is the need to recognize that empathy is a critical factor in the quality of communication (Spreng et al., 2009; Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022). Without knowing whether differences in empathy levels exist between teachers and parents, it is difficult to design educational interventions that enhance mutual understanding. This is particularly relevant in regions such as the Prefecture of Drama, where socioeconomic and cultural diversity may influence interpersonal communication, making an understanding of this dynamic especially important.
The present study aims to address this specific gap by measuring and comparing the empathy of both groups in the Prefecture of Drama. The resulting data are expected to provide an empirical basis for understanding the psychological prerequisites of collaboration, offering evidence that may be utilized in the future to improve school-family communication and to design targeted interventions (Lee & Lee, 2024).
<bold>Purpose of the </bold>
<bold>s</bold>
<bold>tudy</bold>
Recognizing the fundamental importance of empathy, the current research seeks to conduct a comparative investigation of empathy levels, as measured by the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ), between teachers and parents of primary education students in the Prefecture of Drama. The study intends to establish an empirical basis for the empathy levels of both groups, laying the foundation for future exploration of how their potentially differing levels of empathy may influence the quality of school-family communication.
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>q</bold>
<bold>uestions</bold>
The present study poses the following questions, which derive directly from its purpose and aim to establish an empirical understanding of the empathy dynamics between the two groups:
What are the empathy levels, as measured by the TEQ, of Primary Education teachers in the Prefecture of Drama?
What are the empathy levels, as measured by the TEQ, of parents of Primary Education students in the Prefecture of Drama?
Are there statistically significant differences in empathy levels between the two groups?
Do the empathy levels of teachers and parents correlate with key demographic characteristics (such as gender, age, and years of professional experience)?
What theoretical implications for school-family communication arise from the findings of this comparison?
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>h</bold>
<bold>ypotheses</bold>
Based on the literature review and the anticipated differences in roles and professional training, the following research hypotheses are formulated:
Primary Education teachers in the Prefecture of Drama are expected to score high levels of empathy, as their role requires emotional responsiveness and the management of interpersonal relationships (Aldrup et al., 2022).
Parents of Primary Education students in the Prefecture of Drama are also expected to demonstrate high levels of empathy, as parenthood inherently involves emotional care and responsiveness to children's needs (Borelli et al., 2021).
Teachers are hypothesized to exhibit statistically higher levels of empathy (TEQ) than parents, due to their professional training, engagement with the psychological dimensions of learning, and the continuous need for interpersonal interaction within the classroom (Aldrup et al., 2022; Graziano et al., 2024).
Empathy levels are expected to correlate significantly with the participants' core demographic characteristics. Specifically, it is hypothesized that women will exhibit higher empathy levels, and that there will be a positive correlation between empathy and participants' age and experience.
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>m</bold>
<bold>ethodolog</bold>
<bold>y</bold>
The present study employed a quantitative, comparative, and correlational research design. A cross-sectional research method was selected, with variables measured once at a specific point in time; this is considered the most appropriate method for comparing characteristics between two or more independent groups (Creswell, 2014). Data were collected through the electronic distribution of a questionnaire, and the resulting data underwent statistical analysis, providing the study with its quantitative character.
This design enabled the investigation of the primary research objective, specifically the comparison of mean scores for empathy—the dependent variable—between teachers and parents, who constitute the independent variables of our study.
At a methodological level, the investigation of empathy is confined to its affective dimension (affective empathy)—the level of emotional responsiveness and compassion—as quantified and assessed by the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ), and does not extend to the investigation of the cognitive dimension (cognitive empathy).
<bold>Participants</bold>
The target population comprised Primary Education teachers (elementary school teachers, kindergarten teachers, and specialist subject teachers) and parents of students attending public schools in the Prefecture of Drama. Due to practical and time constraints, as well as limited access to a randomized framework, a convenience sampling method was employed (Cohen et al., 2018). Additionally, the snowball sampling technique was employed to expand the sample. The process began with the identification of an initial group of 'seeds,' consisting of ten teachers and ten parents, selected based on their availability. After completing the questionnaire, these initial participants were asked to forward the electronic research link to colleagues and other parents within their social and professional networks (Parker et al., 2019).
In total, 99 individuals from the Prefecture of Drama participated in the study. The sample was divided into two groups: the first comprised 50 Primary Education teachers, and the second 49 parents whose children are enrolled in Primary Education. It should be noted that the parent group consisted exclusively of mothers. This outcome is consistent with research findings in the Greek educational context, which indicate that mothers typically assume the primary role in school-family communication and child-rearing (Poulou & Matsagouras, 2007). This sample size is considered satisfactory for conducting comparative statistical analyses and exploring statistical power (Mazokopaki, 2021).
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>i</bold>
<bold>nstrument</bold>
For the quantitative measurement of empathy in the present study, the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ) was utilized, a psychometrically validated tool developed by Spreng et al. (2009). The TEQ is a unidimensional scale consisting of 16 items, with a clear focus on assessing affective empathy. The emotional dimension of empathy measured by this scale is directly linked to emotional contagion, sympathetic arousal, and the tendency towards altruism (Spreng et al., 2009; Kourmousi et al., 2017).
The focus of the present study on the affective dimension of empathy is both theoretically and methodologically justified. According to Spreng et al. (2009), affective empathy –the capacity for emotional responsiveness and compassion–is directly linked to prosocial motivation and the developing of interpersonal bonds (Decety & Cowell, 2014). Within the context of school-family relationship, affective empathy is considered particularly important, as it forms the foundation for developing trust and mutual understanding (Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022; Aldrup et al., 2022). While cognitive empathy (perspective-taking) is also important, the affective dimension was selected as the focus of the present study because: (a) it is reliably measured by the TEQ, a tool validated in the Greek educational context (Kourmousi et al., 2017); (b) it is directly connected to the emotional prerequisites of effective communication; and (c) it represents the core of “empathy as action” that fosters collaboration (Cline, 2023).
In the original English version, the questionnaire demonstrates high internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient ranging from a= 0.85 to 0.87 (Spreng et al., 2009). In the Greek version, the reliability of the TEQ was found to be a= 0.72 in a sample of 3,955 teachers (Kourmousi et al., 2017), a value considered acceptable for social science research. This makes the questionnaire an appropriate tool for the present comparison between professionals (teachers) and parents. In the current sample, the internal consistency of the TEQ was acceptable for teachers (a= 0.71), while for parents, it was marginally acceptable (a= 0.66).
The lower reliability reported for the parent group can be attributed to the increased heterogeneity of this sample. While teachers form a professional group with a shared educational background, parents represent a non-selected population (laypeople), which often leads to greater variance in the interpretation of self-report items (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Perhaps the most significant factor influencing the alpha coefficient is the reduced number of scale items. According to the Greek adaptation of the TEQ (Kourmousi et al., 2017), item 11 is excluded from the total score calculation, resulting in a scale comprising 15 items instead of the original 16. As Cronbach's alpha coefficient is positively dependent on the number of items (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011), this adaptation contributes interpretatively to the marginal reliability value, particularly when combined with the smaller parent sample size (N=49).
Despite the marginally acceptable reliability coefficient for the parent group, the value is considered sufficient for exploratory research in a new population (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Furthermore, validation within the Greek context has been conducted in other professional sectors, such as medical students (Kourmousi et al., 2021), reinforcing its reliability for measuring participants' emotional profiles. Items are scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1: Never – 5: Always).
<bold>Research </bold>
<bold>p</bold>
<bold>rocedure</bold>
The study was conducted according to the principles of quantitative methodology and was structured into four stages, following Creswell (2014). Initially, the research questions were defined and the data collection scale was selected. The second stage involved sample selection, including Primary Education teachers in Drama, regardless of specialty, and parents or guardians of students.
The third stage involved data collection, which took place during the first half of October 2025. The questionnaire consisted of two parts: one on participants' demographic information and a second containing the TEQ. The questionnaire link was distributed to teachers electronically (email or social media groups) and to parents using the snowball sampling method, in which initial participants forwarded the link to their social circles. For the snowball sampling procedure for the parent group, the initial participants ('seeds') were identified through the researchers' professional and personal networks, including teachers and parents from school units in the Prefecture of Drama. These initial participants were selected based on their willingness to participate and their access to broader parental social networks, following the recommendations of Cohen et al. (2018) and Naderifar et al. (2017) to maximize the effectiveness of the method. Each initial participant was asked to forward the questionnaire link to acquaintances who met the inclusion criteria, thereby creating referral chains. Although this method does not ensure random sampling, it is considered appropriate for exploratory studies involving populations with limited accessibility (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981).
Despite researchers' efforts to recruit male parents through multiple channels (school parent associations, social media groups, and direct contact), all participants who completed the questionnaire were mothers. This reflects the well-documented reality of minimal paternal involvement in school-related activities in the Greek educational context (Papadopoulos & Gkaintatzi, 2023), where mothers typically serve as the primary liaisons between family and school.
In the final stage, data coding, analysis, and the extraction of findings and conclusions were conducted according to the Greek validation guidelines for the TEQ (Kourmousi et al., 2017). Internal consistency was verified using Cronbach's alpha coefficient (0.71 for teachers and 0.66 for parents). Data processing was performed in Microsoft Excel, utilizing built-in functions and the Analysis ToolPak add-in.
The choice of Microsoft Excel with the Analysis ToolPak add-in for statistical analysis was determined by the nature of the required analyses and considerations of accessibility and transparency. The statistical procedures employed in this study–descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, Pearson correlation coefficients, and Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients–are based on well-established mathematical formulas that are implemented identically across statistical software platforms (Field, 2018). To ensure methodological rigor, all analyses were conducted according to standardized protocols: (a) formulas and functions were cross-verified using Excel's built-in function library and the Analysis ToolPak; (b) key results (e.g., t-test outcomes) were independently recalculated using manual formulas to confirm accuracy; and (c) effect size indices (Cohen's d) were calculated following conventional guidelines (Cohen, 1988). Furthermore, the use of widely accessible software enhances the replicability of the analytical procedures for researchers in resource-constrained educational contexts (Cohen et al., 2018). While specialized software such as SPSS or R offers advanced capabilities for complex modeling, the analytical scope of this study did not require such functionalities. Nevertheless, the authors acknowledge this as a methodological consideration and recommend the use of dedicated statistical software for future research involving more complex multivariate analyses.
The analysis first identified the characteristics of the two participating groups. Subsequently, empathy levels were then calculated at both individual and group levels, followed by intergroup comparisons. Descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, and median, were used to determine the empathy levels of each group. To compare the results between the two groups, an Independent Samples t-test was conducted, considering both equal and unequal variances, after confirming that the standard deviations were similar (SD = 0.38 for teachers, SD = 0.39 for parents). Finally, the correlation between empathy levels and demographic characteristics was examined using Pearson's correlation coefficient between individual empathy scores and demographic variables for each group separately. A digital open-access calculator was used to determine statistical significance (p-values).
To compare the means, in addition to the t-statistic and the corresponding p-value, Cohen's d effect size index was utilized. Cohen's d is an established measure of the magnitude of the difference between two independent groups, independent of sample size (Cohen, 1988). Based on conventional reference values (0.20 = small, 0.50 = medium, 0.80 = large effect size), the d-index allows assessment of the practical significance of the findings, complementing the information provided by the p-value.
<bold>Ethical </bold>
<bold>c</bold>
<bold>onsiderations</bold>
Ethical standards for scientific research (APA, 2020) were strictly adhered to in order to protect articipants. Before completing the questionnaire, all participants were fully informed of the study's purpose. Participation was voluntary, with no obligation, and submission of the questionnaire constituted explicit informed consent. Particular emphasis was placed on ensuring complete anonymity for participants. As data collection was conducted electronically and no personally identifiable information (e.g., name, telephone number, email) was requested, anonymity was maintained throughout the process. The data were used exclusively for the academic purposes of this study.
<bold>Discussion</bold>
The results of the present study show that both teachers and parents in Primary Education in the Prefecture of Drama display high levels of empathy, with no statistically significant difference between the two groups. This finding is particularly important in the context of the affective dimension of empathy measured by the TEQ. According to Spreng et al. (2009), the TEQ conceptualizes empathy more as the capacity for emotional responsiveness and compassion rather than cognitive perspective-taking—the understanding of another's thoughts without emotional involvement.
The equivalence in empathy levels indicates that both the professional (teacher) and personal (parent) roles activate similar emotional skills. The absence of a statistically significant difference (p = 0.819) is further supported by the extremely low effect size (Cohen's d = 0.05). According to Cohen's (1988) criteria, such a low d suggests that the similarity between teachers and parents is not due to low statistical power or marginal reliability of the scale in the parent group, but rather reflects a genuine convergence of affective empathy levels within this specific social context. This statistical convergence allows for the hypothesis that the structural similarities of the two roles in Primary Education transcend the methodological variances of the measurement.
This reinforces the argument that empathy is not solely a professional competency but a shared social prerequisite for caregiving and relational bonding (Borelli et al., 2021; Aldrup et al., 2022). Furthermore, the lack of a statistical difference may indicate that the roles of parents and primary school teachers psychologically "merge," as both are primarily concerned with the care and support of young children. This interpretation is further supported by supplementary analysis, which found no significant difference between female teachers and mothers specifically (p = 0.341), indicating that when comparing groups with similar gender composition, equivalence in affective empathy remains. This finding reinforces the idea that both caregiving roles—whether professional or parental—activate comparable emotional responsiveness capacities.
Additionally, although not explicitly examined, the likelihood that a significant portion of teachers are also parents may further facilitate this role fusion. This observation can be further contextualized through Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological systems theory, specifically the concept of the mesosystem—the interconnections between an individual's microsystems, such as family and school. According to this framework, experiences and competencies developed in one context (e.g., parenting) can transfer to and enrich functioning in another (e.g., teaching). Finally, although unknown in the present study, the probability that a significant proportion of teachers also hold the status of a parent is a factor that reinforces role fusion and provides grounds for further investigation. This convergence of identities may act as a catalyst in smoothing out differences in empathy levels, as the daily experience of raising one's own children interacts with a professional pedagogical approach (Hargreaves, 2000; Day, 2004). Although the present study did not collect specific data on the exact number of teachers who are also parents, the absence of this distinction highlights a new research direction: investigating how parenthood influences the professional empathy of educators.
The demographic profile of the teacher sample supports this interpretation: 80% of participants reported being married or previously married, and the age distribution indicates that a substantial proportion (64% aged 41 and above) falls within the typical age range for parenthood in Greece. Although parental status was not explicitly assessed, it is statistically likely that a significant subset of teachers also have parental roles. This potential overlap may partially explain the observed similarly in affective empathy levels between teachers and participating mothers, as the emotional skills developed through parenting could reinforce those required in teaching, and vice versa. Future research should explicitly measure parental status among teachers to test this hypothesis.
The rejection of Hypothesis 3 suggests that professional training is not a primary predictor of affective empathy levels. However, given the marginally acceptable internal consistency of the scale for the parent group, this finding should be interpreted with caution. While the data indicate no significant difference, the reliability limitation implies that subtle variations between groups might not have been fully detected, warranting further investigation with larger samples before drawing definitive conclusions about the equivalence of empathy profiles.
These findings contrast with some previous studies, such as Mazokopaki (2021), which reported higher empathy among Secondary Education teachers. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is the greater direct contact and emotional engagement inherent in Primary Education, which may enhance parental compassion and thus narrow the gap between the two groups.
Moreover, the fact that both groups score near the mean empathy level of the Greek population (Kourmousi et al., 2017) suggests that socio-cultural context plays a vital role, supporting Bronfenbrenner's (1979) theory regarding the influence of the mesosystem.
The statistically significant correlation between gender and empathy in teachers (r = 0.35, p = 0.012), with females reporting higher levels, is consistent with both international (Christov-Moore et al., 2014) and Greek literature (Kourmousi et al., 2017). This can be interpreted through the lens of social roles and gender-stereotypical expectations (Eisenberg et al., 2006), which often encourage the expression of emotional sensitivity in women.
However, as the parent sample consisted exclusively of females, gender influence could not be examined in that group. This constitutes a limitation that necessitates caution in generalizing the findings, as the observed convergence in empathy levels may reflect a shared gendered approach to care and relational proximity. The absence of fathers, while limiting external validity, reflects the social reality within the Greek educational context, where school communication and the primary oversight of children's education are still predominantly performed by mothers (Poulou & Matsagouras, 2007). This underscores the need for greater involvement of fathers in the educational process, which remains a key challenge for achieving a more balanced school–family partnership.
The fifth research question of this study concerns the theoretical implications arising from the comparative analysis of empathy levels in school–family communication. The answer to this question forms the core of this section. The equivalence in empathy levels provides a favorable foundation for building mutual trust. According to Epstein's (2018) model, quality communication depends on mutual understanding, with empathy serving as the core facilitating mechanism (Cline, 2023; Hannon & O'Donnell, 2022).
The finding that both groups possess similar levels of affective empathy suggests that existing barriers to school-family communication (e.g., lack of time, one-way communication—Papadopoulos & Gkaintatzi, 2023) are not necessarily psychological but structural. Consequently, improving communication does not require the "cultivation" of empathy, but rather the implementation of structural mechanisms that allow it to flourish. Such measures include regular teacher-parent meetings with an emotional focus, training in empathic listening for both groups (Martín de Hijas-Larrea et al., 2025), and the creation of collaborative spaces beyond bureaucratic procedures (Miller & Stine, 2023).
In summary, communication barriers are not due to a lack of empathy but to inadequate support structures. Collectively, this study contributes to the field by providing the first comparative evidence of affective empathy equivalence between Greek primary teachers and parents. By challenging the assumption that professional training inherently enhances empathy, the findings shift the focus from individual psychological deficits to structural barriers in school-family communication. This offers a theoretical validation of role overlap (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and practical grounds for restructuring collaboration mechanisms rather than empathy training.
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